We Cannot Prevent Memory Errors, but Can They Be Detected?
8.3 Bug with Memory
Learning Objectives
By the end of this department, you will be able to:
- Compare and dissimilarity the two types of amnesia
- Discuss the unreliability of eyewitness testimony
- Talk over encoding failure
- Talk over the diverse memory errors
- Compare and dissimilarity the two types of interference
You may pride yourself on your astonishing power to remember the birthdates and ages of all of your friends and family unit members, or you may be able recall brilliant details of your 5th birthday party at Chuck E. Cheese'due south. Nevertheless, all of usa have at times felt frustrated, and even embarrassed, when our memories accept failed united states. There are several reasons why this happens.
AMNESIA
Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma. Psychologist Endel Tulving (2002) and his colleagues at the University of Toronto studied patient K. C. for years. G. C. suffered a traumatic caput injury in a motorcycle accident and so had severe amnesia. Tulving writes,
the outstanding fact about G.C.'due south mental make-upward is his utter inability to remember whatsoever events, circumstances, or situations from his own life. His episodic amnesia covers his whole life, from nascency to the nowadays. The only exception is the experiences that, at whatever time, he has had in the last infinitesimal or 2. (Tulving, 2002, p. 14)
Anterograde Amnesia
There are two common types of amnesia: anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is ordinarily acquired by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head. With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information, although you tin retrieve information and events that happened prior to your injury. The hippocampus is usually affected (McLeod, 2011). This suggests that damage to the encephalon has resulted in the disability to transfer information from brusque-term to long-term retentiveness; that is, the inability to consolidate memories.
Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or semantic memories, but are still able to grade new procedural memories (Bayley & Squire, 2002). This was truthful of H. Grand., which was discussed earlier. The brain harm caused past his surgery resulted in anterograde amnesia. H. Grand. would read the aforementioned magazine over and over, having no retentiveness of ever reading it—it was ever new to him. He also could not remember people he had met later his surgery. If you were introduced to H. M. and so you left the room for a few minutes, he would not know you upon your return and would innovate himself to you again. Notwithstanding, when presented the same puzzle several days in a row, although he did not call back having seen the puzzle before, his speed at solving it became faster each day (because of relearning) (Corkin, 1965, 1968).
Effigy viii.08.This diagram illustrates the timeline of retrograde and anterograde amnesia. Retentiveness problems that extend dorsum in time earlier the injury and forestall retrieval of data previously stored in long-term retention are known as retrograde amnesia. Conversely, retentiveness problems that extend forward in time from the point of injury and prevent the formation of new memories are called anterograde amnesia.
Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. People with retrograde amnesia cannot remember some or even all of their past. They have difficulty remembering episodic memories. What if you woke up in the hospital one day and there were people surrounding your bed challenge to exist your spouse, your children, and your parents? The trouble is you don't recognize whatsoever of them. You were in a car accident, suffered a head injury, and now accept retrograde amnesia. You don't retrieve anything near your life prior to waking up in the infirmary. This may sound like the stuff of Hollywood movies, and Hollywood has been fascinated with the amnesia plot for well-nigh a century, going all the way back to the filmGarden of Lies from 1915 to more than recent movies such equally the Jason Bourne spy thrillers. However, for real-life sufferers of retrograde amnesia, like former NFL football game player Scott Bolzan, the story is not a Hollywood movie. Bolzan vicious, hit his caput, and deleted 46 years of his life in an instant. He is now living with one of the most extreme cases of retrograde amnesia on record.
MEMORY Structure AND RECONSTRUCTION
The conception of new memories is sometimes chosen construction, and the process of bringing up one-time memories is called reconstruction. Yet equally we retrieve our memories, we also tend to alter and change them. A memory pulled from long-term storage into brusque-term memory is flexible. New events can exist added and we can change what nosotros remember we recall near past events, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions. People may not intend to distort facts, but it tin happen in the process of retrieving quondam memories and combining them with new memories (Roediger & DeSoto, 2015).
Suggestibility
When someone witnesses a crime, that person's memory of the details of the crime is very important in communicable the doubtable. Considering memory is and so fragile, witnesses can exist hands (and often accidentally) misled due to the problem of suggestibility. Suggestibility describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories.
In the fall of 2002, a sniper in the DC area shot people at a gas station, leaving Dwelling house Depot, and walking down the street. These attacks went on in a variety of places for over 3 weeks and resulted in the deaths of 10 people. During this time, every bit you lot tin can imagine, people were terrified to leave their homes, go shopping, or even walk through their neighborhoods. Police officers and the FBI worked frantically to solve the crimes, and a tip hotline was fix. Law enforcement received over 140,000 tips, which resulted in approximately 35,000 possible suspects.
Almost of the tips were dead ends, until a white van was spotted at the site of one of the shootings. The police force chief went on national boob tube with a picture of the white van. After the news conference, several other eyewitnesses called to say that they too had seen a white van fleeing from the scene of the shooting. At the time, at that place were more than 70,000 white vans in the area. Police officers, as well equally the general public, focused almost exclusively on white vans because they believed the eyewitnesses. Other tips were ignored. When the suspects were finally caught, they were driving a blue sedan.
As illustrated by this example, we are vulnerable to the power of suggestion, simply based on something we see on the news. Or we tin claim to call back something that in fact is only a suggestion someone made. It is the proffer that is the cause of the fake retentiveness.
Eyewitness Misidentification
Even though retentivity and the process of reconstruction tin can be delicate, constabulary officers, prosecutors, and the courts often rely on eyewitness identification and testimony in the prosecution of criminals. Nevertheless, faulty eyewitness identification and testimony tin can lead to wrongful convictions.
Figure 8.09.In studying cases where DNA testify has exonerated people from crimes, theInnocence Project discovered that bystander misidentification is the leading crusade of wrongful convictions (Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Police force, Yeshiva University, 2009).
How does this happen? In 1984, Jennifer Thompson, so a 22-yr-quondam college student in North Carolina, was brutally assaulted at knifepoint. During her attack, she tried to memorize every detail of her rapist'southward face and physical characteristics, vowing that if she survived, she would help get him convicted. Afterward the police were contacted, a blended sketch was made of the suspect, and Jennifer was shown six photos. She chose two, one of which was of Ronald Cotton wool. Afterwards looking at the photos for 4–v minutes, she said, "Yeah. This is the one," and then she added, "I think this is the guy." When questioned about this past the detective who asked, "You're sure? Positive?" She said that it was him. So she asked the detective if she did OK, and he reinforced her choice by telling her she did not bad. These kinds of unintended cues and suggestions by police officers tin atomic number 82 witnesses to identify the wrong suspect. The district attorney was concerned about her lack of certainty the beginning time, and so she viewed a lineup of vii men. She said she was trying to decide between numbers four and v, finally deciding that Cotton, number 5, "Looks about like him." He was 22 years old.
Past the fourth dimension the trial began, Jennifer Thompson had admittedly no doubtfulness that her aggressor was Ronald Cotton. She testified at the court hearing, and her testimony was compelling enough that information technology helped convict him. How did she become from, "I think it's the guy" and it "Looks most like him," to such certainty? Gary Wells and Deah Quinlivan (2009) assert information technology's suggestive police identification procedures, such every bit stacking lineups to make the defendant stand up out, telling the witness which person to identify, and confirming witnesses choices by telling them "Good option," or "You lot picked the guy."
After Cotton was convicted of the rape, he was sent to prison for life plus 50 years. After 4 years in prison house, he was able to become a new trial. Jennifer Thompson in one case once more testified against him. This fourth dimension Ronald Cotton was given 2 life sentences. After serving xi years in prison, DNA evidence finally demonstrated that Ronald Cotton did not commit the rape, was innocent, and had served over a decade in prison house for a crime he did not commit.
Ronald Cotton's story, unfortunately, is not unique. There are too people who were convicted and placed on expiry row, who were subsequently exonerated. The Innocence Project is a not-profit group that works to exonerate falsely bedevilled people, including those convicted by bystander testimony. To acquire more, you tin can visit http://www.innocenceproject.org.
PRESERVING EYEWITNESS MEMORY: THE ELIZABETH SMART Example
Contrast the Cotton case with what happened in the ElizabethSmart case. When Elizabeth was xiv years sometime and fast asleep in her bed at domicile, she was abducted at knifepoint. Her nine-year-quondam sister, Mary Katherine, was sleeping in the same bed and watched, terrified, as her beloved older sister was abducted. Mary Katherine was the sole eyewitness to this law-breaking and was very fearful. In the coming weeks, the Salt Lake Urban center police and the FBI proceeded with caution with Mary Katherine. They did not want to implant any false memories or mislead her in any way. They did not bear witness her police line-ups or push her to do a blended sketch of the abductor. They knew if they corrupted her memory, Elizabeth might never exist found. For several months, at that place was little or no progress on the example. So, about iv months after the kidnapping, Mary Katherine first recalled that she had heard the abductor'southward voice prior to that dark (he had worked ane fourth dimension equally a handyman at the family's dwelling house) and then she was able to proper name the person whose voice it was. The family contacted the printing and others recognized him—after a total of nine months, the suspect was caught and Elizabeth Smart was returned to her family.
The Misinformation Upshot
Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has conducted all-encompassing research on memory. She has studied false memories as well as recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Loftus also developed the misinformation effect epitome, which holds that after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event.
According to Loftus, an eyewitness's retentiveness of an event is very flexible due to the misinformation upshot. To test this theory, Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked 45 U.S. higher students to estimate the speed of cars using dissimilar forms of questions. The participants were shown films of car accidents and were asked to play the office of the bystander and depict what happened. They were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed, collided, bumped, hitting, contacted) each other?" The participants estimated the speed of the cars based on the verb used.
Participants who heard the discussion "smashed" estimated that the cars were traveling at a much higher speed than participants who heard the discussion "contacted." The implied information nearly speed, based on the verb they heard, had an result on the participants' memory of the blow. In a follow-upwards i calendar week later, participants were asked if they saw any broken drinking glass (none was shown in the accident pictures). Participants who had been in the "smashed" grouping were more than twice as probable to indicate that they did remember seeing glass. Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that a leading question encouraged them to non just recall the cars were going faster, but to likewise falsely remember that they saw broken glass.
Effigy viii.10.When people are asked leading questions about an upshot, their retention of the upshot may be contradistinct. (credit a: modification of work by Rob Immature)
Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories
Other researchers have described how whole events, non just words, can be falsely recalled, even when they did not happen. The idea that memories of traumatic events could be repressed has been a theme in the field of psychology, beginning with Sigmund Freud, and the controversy surrounding the thought continues today. Given what y'all accept learned today, do you remember it is possible for false memories to be planted? What nearly in a psychotherapy setting?
Some treatments are grounded in the notion that individuals tin repress memories of traumatic events from childhood, including sexual abuse, and then recover those memories years later through therapeutic techniques such equally hypnosis, guided visualization, and age regression. Using these methods, the therapist helps the client think a "retention" of the corruption that has been repressed.
On the other hand, Loftus questions whether or not those memories are authentic, and is skeptical of the questioning procedure used to access these memories, given that even the slightest proffer from the therapist tin can lead to misinformation furnishings. For example, researchers Stephen Ceci and Maggie Brucks (1993, 1995) asked three-year-old children to utilise an anatomically right doll to show where their pediatricians had touched them during an exam. Fifty-five percent of the children pointed to the genital/anal area on the dolls, even when they had not received whatever form of genital exam.
Ever since Loftus published her first studies on the suggestibility of eyewitness testimony in the 1970s, social scientists, constabulary officers, therapists, and legal practitioners have been aware of the flaws in interview practices. Consequently, steps take been taken to decrease suggestibility of witnesses. Ane mode is to modify how witnesses are questioned. When interviewers use neutral and less leading language, children more accurately call back what happened and who was involved (Goodman, 2006; Pipage, 1996; Piping, Lamb, Orbach, & Esplin, 2004). Another change is in how police lineups are conducted. It's recommended that a bullheaded photo lineup be used. This way the person administering the lineup doesn't know which photo belongs to the doubtable, minimizing the possibility of giving leading cues. Additionally, judges in some states now inform jurors about the possibility of misidentification. Judges can also suppress eyewitness testimony if they deem it unreliable.
FORGETTING
"I've a grand memory for forgetting," quipped Robert Louis Stevenson. Forgetting refers to loss of information from long-term memory. We all forget things, similar a loved one'due south birthday, someone'due south name, or where we put our car keys. As you've come to see, retention is delicate, and forgetting can be frustrating and fifty-fifty embarrassing. Simply why do nosotros forget? To answer this question, we volition look at several perspectives on forgetting.
Encoding Failure
Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual retention process begins, which is encoding failure. We can't remember something if we never stored it in our memory in the first place. This would be similar trying to notice a book on your e-reader that you never actually purchased and downloaded. Oftentimes, in guild to remember something, nosotros must pay attending to the details and actively work to process the data (effortful encoding). Lots of times nosotros don't exercise this. For instance, recall of how many times in your life y'all've seen a penny. Can you accurately call back what the forepart of a U.South. penny looks like? When researchers Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Adams (1979) asked this question, they found that about Americans don't know which i it is. The reason is near probable encoding failure. Most of us never encode the details of the penny. Nosotros only encode enough information to exist able to distinguish information technology from other coins. If we don't encode the data, then it'south not in our long-term retentivity, and so we will not be able to recollect information technology.
Do you ever wonder why you can't remember the proper noun of the girl you sat next to briefly in that 1 class? Information technology may be because that information was non deemed less important than other data and therefore forgotten. Instead of committing useless information into long term retention, we just forget what we don't demand to remember.
https://success.oregonstate.edu/learning/retention-process-4-fantastic-nutshells This website from Oregon Land University gives a brief explanation of the retention process in "four fantastic nutshells".
Can you lot tell which coin, (a), (b), (c), or (d) is the accurate depiction of a Usa nickel? The correct respond is (c).
Retentiveness Errors
Psychologist Daniel Schacter (2001), a well-known memory researcher, offers 7 ways our memories fail united states. He calls them the seven sins of memory and categorizes them into three groups: forgetting, distortion, and intrusion.
| Sin | Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Transience | Forgetting | Accessibility of memory decreases over time | Forget events that occurred long ago |
| absentmindedness | Forgetting | Forgetting caused by lapses in attending | Forget where your phone is |
| Blocking | Forgetting | Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked | Tip of the natural language |
| Misattribution | Baloney | Source of retention is confused | Recalling a dream memory every bit a waking retentivity |
| Suggestibility | Distortion | False memories | Result from leading questions |
| Bias | Distortion | Memories distorted by current belief organisation | Align memories to electric current behavior |
| Persistence | Intrusion | Inability to forget undesirable memories | Traumatic events |
Let's look at the showtime sin of the forgetting errors: transience, which means that memories tin can fade over fourth dimension. Here'southward an example of how this happens. Nathan's English instructor has assigned his students to read the novelTo Impale a Mockingbird. Nathan comes home from school and tells his mom he has to read this book for class. "Oh, I loved that book!" she says. Nathan asks her what the book is about, and afterward some hesitation she says, "Well . . . I know I read the book in loftier school, and I remember that one of the master characters is named Lookout man, and her begetter is an attorney, but I honestly don't remember anything else." Nathan wonders if his mother actually read the book, and his female parent is surprised she can't recollect the plot. What is going on here is storage decay: unused information tends to fade with the passage of time.
In 1885, German language psychologist HermannEbbinghaus analyzed the process of memorization. Outset, he memorized lists of nonsense syllables. Then he measured how much he learned (retained) when he attempted to relearn each list. He tested himself over different periods of fourth dimension from 20 minutes subsequently to 30 days after. The result is his famous forgetting curve. Due to storage decay, an average person volition lose 50% of the memorized information after twenty minutes and lxx% of the data after 24 hours (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1964). Your memory for new information decays quickly then eventually levels out.
Figure viii.11.The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve shows how speedily memory for new data decays.
Are you constantly losing your cell telephone? Have you lot always driven back home to make sure you turned off the stove? Take you ever walked into a room for something, but forgotten what it was? You lot probably answered yes to at least one, if not all, of these examples—but don't worry, you are not alone. We are all prone to committing the memory error known equally absentmindedness. These lapses in memory are acquired past breaks in attending or our focus being somewhere else.
Cynthia, a psychologist, recalls a time when she recently committed the retention fault of absentmindedness.
When I was completing court-ordered psychological evaluations, each time I went to the court, I was issued a temporary identification menu with a magnetic strip which would open otherwise locked doors. Equally y'all can imagine, in a court, this identification is valuable and of import and no one wanted it to be lost or exist picked upwardly by a criminal. At the terminate of the day, I would hand in my temporary identification. Ane twenty-four hour period, when I was almost done with an evaluation, my daughter'southward 24-hour interval intendance called and said she was sick and needed to be picked upwards. It was influenza season, I didn't know how ill she was, and I was concerned. I finished up the evaluation in the next ten minutes, packed up my tools, and rushed to drive to my daughter'southward twenty-four hour period intendance. After I picked up my daughter, I could not remember if I had handed dorsum my identification or if I had left it sitting out on a table. I immediately called the court to check. Information technology turned out that I had handed dorsum my identification. Why could I not think that? (personal communication, September 5, 2013)
When have yous experienced absentmindedness?
"I just went and saw this movie calledOblivion, and it had that famous actor in it. Oh, what'south his proper name? He's been in all of those movies, likeThe Shawshank Redemption andThe Dark Knight trilogy. I call back he's fifty-fifty won an Oscar. Oh gosh, I tin motion picture his face up in my mind, and hear his distinctive voice, but I just can't think of his name! This is going to problems me until I can retrieve information technology!" This particular error can be and then frustrating because you have the information right on the tip of your tongue. Have you ever experienced this? If and then, you've committed the error known asblocking: you can't access stored information.
Blocking is also known as tip-of-the-natural language (TOT) phenomenon. The memory is right there, just you can't seem to recall it, merely like not beingness able to remember the name of that very famous actor, Morgan Freeman. (credit: modification of work past D. Miller)
Now let's accept a look at the three errors of distortion: misattribution, suggestibility, and bias. Misattribution happens when you misfile the source of your information. Let's say Alejandro was dating Lucia and they saw the start Hobbit movie together. Then they bankrupt up and Alejandro saw the second Hobbit motion picture with someone else. Subsequently that yr, Alejandro and Lucia get dorsum together. One day, they are discussing how the Hobbit books and movies are different and Alejandro says to Lucia, "I loved watching the 2nd movie with yous and seeing you bound out of your seat during that super scary function." When Lucia responded with a puzzled and and then angry look, Alejandro realized he'd committed the error of misattribution.
What if someone is a survivor of sexual assault shortly after watching a television set program? Is it possible that the victim could actually blame the set on on the person she saw on television because of misattribution? This is exactly what happened to Donald Thomson.
Australian eyewitness practiced Donald Thomson appeared on a live TV give-and-take about the unreliability of eyewitness retentiveness. He was later arrested, placed in a lineup and identified past a victim equally the man who had raped her. The police charged Thomson although the rape had occurred at the fourth dimension he was on Television. They dismissed his alibi that he was in plain view of a Television audience and in the company of the other discussants, including an assistant commissioner of constabulary. . . . Somewhen, the investigators discovered that the rapist had attacked the woman as she was watching TV—the very program on which Thomson had appeared. Authorities eventually cleared Thomson. The adult female had confused the rapist'due south face with the face that she had seen on TV. (Baddeley, 2004, p. 133)
The second distortion error is suggestibility. Suggestibility is similar to misattribution, since it as well involves false memories, but it'due south dissimilar. With misattribution y'all create the fake memory entirely on your ain, which is what the victim did in the Donald Thomson case above. With suggestibility, it comes from someone else, such as a therapist or police interviewer asking leading questions of a witness during an interview.
Memories can also be afflicted by bias, which is the last distortion mistake. Schacter (2001) says that your feelings and view of the earth can really distort your memory of by events. There are several types of bias:
- Stereotypical bias involves racial and gender biases. For case, when Asian American and European American enquiry participants were presented with a list of names, they more oft incorrectly remembered typical African American names such as Jamal and Tyrone to be associated with the occupation basketball role player, and they more frequently incorrectly remembered typical White names such as Greg and Howard to be associated with the occupation of politician (Payne, Jacoby, & Lambert, 2004).
- Egocentric bias involves enhancing our memories of the past (Payne et al., 2004). Did yous actually score the winning goal in that big soccer match, or did you just aid?
- Hindsight bias happens when we think an upshot was inevitable after the fact. This is the "I knew it all along" phenomenon. The reconstructive nature of retentiveness contributes to hindsight bias (Carli, 1999). We remember untrue events that seem to confirm that we knew the event all along.
Have you ever had a song play over and over in your head? How virtually a retentivity of a traumatic consequence, something yous really do non want to call back almost? When you lot keep remembering something, to the indicate where you can't "get it out of your head" and information technology interferes with your ability to concentrate on other things, information technology is called persistence. It's Schacter's 7th and concluding retention error. It'south really a failure of our retention arrangement considering we involuntarily recall unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones. For instance, you witness a horrific car accident on the way to work one morning, and y'all can't concentrate on work because you go on remembering the scene.
Many veterans of war machine conflicts involuntarily retrieve unwanted, unpleasant memories. (credit: Section of Defence photograph by U.S. Air Force Tech. Sgt. Michael R. Holzworth)
Interference
Sometimes data is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible. This is known as interference, and at that place are two types: proactive interference and retroactive interference. Have you ever gotten a new phone number or moved to a new address, but right after you tell people the old (and wrong) phone number or address? When the new year's day starts, do yous find yous accidentally write the previous year? These are examples of proactive interference: when former data hinders the recall of newly learned data. Retroactive interference happens when data learned more recently hinders the recall of older information. For example, this week you are studying almost Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory. Adjacent week you study the humanistic perspective of Maslow and Rogers. Thereafter, yous have trouble remembering Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development because you lot tin only remember Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
Figure eight.12.Sometimes forgetting is acquired past a failure to retrieve information. This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive.
SUMMARY
All of united states of america at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and fifty-fifty embarrassed when our memories have failed us. Our retentiveness is flexible and decumbent to many errors, which is why eyewitness testimony has been found to be largely unreliable. In that location are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may be due to amnesia. Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure. We can't recall something if we never stored it in our memory in the get-go identify. Schacter presents 7 memory errors that too contribute to forgetting. Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but we cannot access it due to interference. Proactive interference happens when sometime information hinders the recall of newly learned information. Retroactive interference happens when data learned more than recently hinders the recall of older information.
References:
Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology
Exercises
Review Questions:
1. ________ is when our recollections of the past are done in a self-enhancing manner.
a. stereotypical bias
b. egocentric bias
c. hindsight bias
d. enhancement bias
two. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is also known as ________.
a. persistence
b. misattribution
c. transience
d. blocking
three. The formulation of new memories is sometimes called ________, and the process of bringing up old memories is called ________.
a. construction; reconstruction
b. reconstruction; structure
c. production; reproduction
d. reproduction; production
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. Compare and dissimilarity the ii types of interference.
ii. Compare and contrast the two types of amnesia.
Personal Application Questions:
1. Which of the seven memory errors presented by Schacter have you committed? Provide an case of each 1.
2. Jurors identify a lot of weight on bystander testimony. Imagine you are an attorney representing a defendant who is accused of robbing a convenience store. Several eyewitnesses have been called to testify confronting your client. What would you lot tell the jurors about the reliability of eyewitness testimony?
Glossary:
absentmindedness
amnesia
anterograde amnesia
bias
blocking
structure
imitation memory syndrome
forgetting
misattribution
misinformation effect paradigm
persistence
proactive interference
reconstruction
retroactive interference
retrograde amnesia
suggestibility
transience
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
i. B
ii. D
3. A
Disquisitional Thinking Questions:
1. At that place are 2 types of interference: retroactive and proactive. Both are types of forgetting caused by a failure to recollect information. With retroactive interference, new data hinders the ability to call up older information. With proactive interference, it'southward the opposite: old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
2. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde. Both involve the loss of long-term memory that occurs equally the issue of disease, concrete trauma, or psychological trauma. With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information; still, you can remember data and events that happened prior to your injury. Retrograde amnesia is the verbal opposite: you feel loss of retentivity for events that occurred earlier the trauma.
Glossary:
absentmindedness:lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else
amnesia:loss of long-term memory that occurs equally the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
anterograde amnesia:loss of retentiveness for events that occur after the encephalon trauma
bias:how feelings and view of the world distort retention of by events
blocking:retentiveness error in which you cannot access stored information
construction:formulation of new memories
faux memory syndrome:recall of simulated autobiographical memories
forgetting:loss of data from long-term memory
misattribution:memory fault in which yous confuse the source of your information
misinformation event prototype:later exposure to wrong data, a person may misremember the original event
persistence:failure of the retention organisation that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones
proactive interference: old information hinders the recall of newly learned data
reconstruction:process of bringing up former memories that might be distorted by new information
retroactive interference:information learned more recently hinders the recall of older data
retrograde amnesia:loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma
suggestibility: effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
transience: retentivity error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time
Source: https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/8-4-problems-with-memory/
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